[Skip to Navigation]
Sign In
Figure 1.  Selection Process for Trials Included in the Meta-analyses
Selection Process for Trials Included in the Meta-analyses

The total number of trials is greater than the total number of studies (n = 37) because 1 study24 included 2 trials (ie, 2 cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia [CBT-I] conditions, each with an independent control/comparison condition).

Figure 2.  Remission from Insomnia at Posttreatment
Remission from Insomnia at Posttreatment

Variation in data marker size indicates relative weighting by sample size. CBT-I indicates cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; ISI, Insomnia Severity Index; PD, Parkinson disease; PSQI, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; and PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder.

Figure 3.  Sleep Efficiency (SE)–Controlled Effect Sizes From Baseline to Posttreatment
Sleep Efficiency (SE)–Controlled Effect Sizes From Baseline to Posttreatment

All outcomes were derived from sleep diaries. Variation in data marker size indicates relative weighting by sample size. CBT-I indicates cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; PD, Parkinson disease; PLMD, periodic limb movement disorder; and PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder.

Figure 4.  Comorbid Outcomes–Controlled Effect Sizes From Baseline to Posttreatment
Comorbid Outcomes–Controlled Effect Sizes From Baseline to Posttreatment

Variation in data marker size indicates relative weighting by sample size. BDI indicates Beck Depression Inventory; CBT-I, cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CPS, Chronic Pain Scale; FSS, Fatigue Severity Scale; HRSD, Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression; MFSI-SF, Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory–Short Form; MPQ, McGill Pain Questionnaire; OSA, obstructive sleep apnea; PCL-M, PTSD Checklist–Military Version; PFS, Piper Fatigue Scale; PHQ-9, Patient Health Questionnaire; PLMD, periodic limb movement disorder; POMS-SF, POMS–Short-Form; and PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder.

Table.  Trial Characteristics
Trial Characteristics
1.
Morgenthaler  T, Kramer  M, Alessi  C,  et al; American Academy of Sleep Medicine.  Practice parameters for the psychological and behavioral treatment of insomnia: an update: an American Academy Of Sleep Medicine report.  Sleep. 2006;29(11):1415-1419.PubMedGoogle Scholar
2.
Schutte-Rodin  S, Broch  L, Buysse  D, Dorsey  C, Sateia  M.  Clinical guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic insomnia in adults.  J Clin Sleep Med. 2008;4(5):487-504.PubMedGoogle Scholar
3.
Morin  CM, Culbert  JP, Schwartz  SM.  Nonpharmacological interventions for insomnia: a meta-analysis of treatment efficacy.  Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151(8):1172-1180.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
4.
Murtagh  DRR, Greenwood  KM.  Identifying effective psychological treatments for insomnia: a meta-analysis.  J Consult Clin Psychol. 1995;63(1):79-89.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
5.
Irwin  MR, Cole  JC, Nicassio  PM.  Comparative meta-analysis of behavioral interventions for insomnia and their efficacy in middle-aged adults and in older adults 55+ years of age.  Health Psychol. 2006;25(1):3-14.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
6.
Okajima  I, Komada  Y, Inoue  Y.  A meta-analysis on the treatment effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for primary insomnia.  Sleep Biol Rhythms. 2011;9(1):24-34.Google ScholarCrossref
7.
Koffel  EA, Koffel  JB, Gehrman  PR.  A meta-analysis of group cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia.  Sleep Med Rev. 2015;19(2):6-16.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
8.
Smith  MT, Perlis  ML, Park  A,  et al.  Comparative meta-analysis of pharmacotherapy and behavior therapy for persistent insomnia.  Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(1):5-11.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
9.
Lichstein  KL, Wilson  NM, Johnson  CT.  Psychological treatment of secondary insomnia.  Psychol Aging. 2000;15(2):232-240.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
10.
Sánchez-Ortuño  MM, Edinger  JD.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for the management of insomnia comorbid with mental disorders.  Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2012;14(5):519-528.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
11.
Taylor  DJ, Pruiksma  KE.  Cognitive and behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) in psychiatric populations: a systematic review.  Int Rev Psychiatry. 2014;26(2):205-213.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
12.
Smith  MT, Huang  MI, Manber  R.  Cognitive behavior therapy for chronic insomnia occurring within the context of medical and psychiatric disorders.  Clin Psychol Rev. 2005;25(5):559-592.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
13.
Buysse  DJ, Ancoli-Israel  S, Edinger  JD, Lichstein  KL, Morin  CM.  Recommendations for a standard research assessment of insomnia.  Sleep. 2006;29(9):1155-1173.PubMedGoogle Scholar
14.
Morin  CM, Belleville  G, Bélanger  L, Ivers  H.  The Insomnia Severity Index: psychometric indicators to detect insomnia cases and evaluate treatment response.  Sleep. 2011;34(5):601-608.PubMedGoogle Scholar
15.
Buysse  DJ, Reynolds  CF  III, Monk  TH, Berman  SR, Kupfer  DJ.  The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research.  Psychiatry Res. 1989;28(2):193-213.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
16.
Hedges  LV.  Statistical Methodology in Meta-analysis. Princeton, NJ: ERIC Clearinghouse; 1982.
17.
Moses  LE, Mosteller  F, Buehler  JH.  Comparing results of large clinical trials to those of meta-analyses.  Stat Med. 2002;21(6):793-800.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
18.
Rosenthal  R.  Meta-analytic Procedures for Social Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications; 1991.
19.
Cohen  J.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences.2nd ed. London, England: Routledge Academic; 2013.
20.
Rosenthal  R, Rubin  DB.  [Selection models and the file drawer problem]: comment: assumptions and procedures in the file drawer problem.  Stat Sci. 1988;3(1):120-125.Google ScholarCrossref
21.
Duval  S, Tweedie  R.  Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot–based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis.  Biometrics. 2000;56(2):455-463.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
22.
Higgins  JPT, Altman  DG, Gøtzsche  PC,  et al; Cochrane Bias Methods Group; Cochrane Statistical Methods Group.  The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials.  BMJ. 2011;343:d5928. doi:10.1136/bmj.d5928.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
23.
Borenstein  M, Hedges  L, Higgins  J, Rothstein  H.  Comprehensive Meta-Analysis, Version 2. Englewood, NJ: Biostat; 2005:104.
24.
Pigeon  WR, Moynihan  J, Matteson-Rusby  S,  et al.  Comparative effectiveness of CBT interventions for co-morbid chronic pain & insomnia: a pilot study.  Behav Res Ther. 2012;50(11):685-689.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
25.
Arnedt  JT, Conroy  DA, Armitage  R, Brower  KJ.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia in alcohol dependent patients: a randomized controlled pilot trial.  Behav Res Ther. 2011;49(4):227-233.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
26.
Currie  SR, Clark  S, Hodgins  DC, El-Guebaly  N.  Randomized controlled trial of brief cognitive-behavioural interventions for insomnia in recovering alcoholics.  Addiction. 2004;99(9):1121-1132.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
27.
Edinger  JD, Olsen  MK, Stechuchak  KM,  et al.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for patients with primary insomnia or insomnia associated predominantly with mixed psychiatric disorders: a randomized clinical trial.  Sleep. 2009;32(4):499-510.PubMedGoogle Scholar
28.
Manber  R, Edinger  JD, Gress  JL, San Pedro-Salcedo  MG, Kuo  TF, Kalista  T.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia enhances depression outcome in patients with comorbid major depressive disorder and insomnia.  Sleep. 2008;31(4):489-495.PubMedGoogle Scholar
29.
Margolies  SO, Rybarczyk  B, Vrana  SR, Leszczyszyn  DJ, Lynch  J.  Efficacy of a cognitive-behavioral treatment for insomnia and nightmares in Afghanistan and Iraq veterans with PTSD.  J Clin Psychol. 2013;69(10):1026-1042.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
30.
Morgan  K, Dixon  S, Mathers  N, Thompson  J, Tomeny  M.  Psychological treatment for insomnia in the regulation of long-term hypnotic drug use.  Health Technol Assess. 2004;8(8):iii-iv, 1-68.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
31.
Talbot  LS, Maguen  S, Metzler  TJ,  et al.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia in posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial.  Sleep. 2014;37(2):327-341.PubMedGoogle Scholar
32.
Ulmer  CS, Edinger  JD, Calhoun  PS.  A multi-component cognitive-behavioral intervention for sleep disturbance in veterans with PTSD: a pilot study.  J Clin Sleep Med. 2011;7(1):57-68.PubMedGoogle Scholar
33.
Wagley  JN, Rybarczyk  B, Nay  WT, Danish  S, Lund  HG.  Effectiveness of abbreviated CBT for insomnia in psychiatric outpatients: sleep and depression outcomes.  J Clin Psychol. 2013;69(10):1043-1055.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
34.
Watanabe  N, Furukawa  TA, Shimodera  S,  et al.  Brief behavioral therapy for refractory insomnia in residual depression: an assessor-blind, randomized controlled trial.  J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72(12):1651-1658.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
35.
Currie  SR, Wilson  KG, Pontefract  AJ, deLaplante  L.  Cognitive-behavioral treatment of insomnia secondary to chronic pain.  J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68(3):407-416.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
36.
Chen  H-Y, Cheng  I-C, Pan  Y-J,  et al.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for sleep disturbance decreases inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients.  Kidney Int. 2011;80(4):415-422.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
37.
Dirksen  SR, Epstein  DR.  Efficacy of an insomnia intervention on fatigue, mood and quality of life in breast cancer survivors.  J Adv Nurs. 2008;61(6):664-675.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
38.
Edinger  JD, Fins  AI, Sullivan  RJ, Marsh  GR, Dailey  DS, Young  M.  Comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and clonazepam for treating periodic limb movement disorder.  Sleep. 1996;19(5):442-444.PubMedGoogle Scholar
39.
Edinger  JD, Wohlgemuth  WK, Krystal  AD, Rice  JR.  Behavioral insomnia therapy for fibromyalgia patients: a randomized clinical trial.  Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(21):2527-2535.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
40.
Epstein  DR, Dirksen  SR.  Randomized trial of a cognitive-behavioral intervention for insomnia in breast cancer survivors.  Oncol Nurs Forum. 2007;34(5):E51-E59.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
41.
Espie  CA, Fleming  L, Cassidy  J,  et al.  Randomized controlled clinical effectiveness trial of cognitive behavior therapy compared with treatment as usual for persistent insomnia in patients with cancer.  J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(28):4651-4658.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
42.
Fiorentino  L, McQuaid  JR, Liu  L,  et al.  Individual cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia in breast cancer survivors: a randomized controlled crossover pilot study.  Nat Sci Sleep. 2009;2010:1-8.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
43.
Garland  SN, Carlson  LE, Stephens  AJ, Antle  MC, Samuels  C, Campbell  TS.  Mindfulness-based stress reduction compared with cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of insomnia comorbid with cancer: a randomized, partially blinded, noninferiority trial.  J Clin Oncol. 2014;32(5):449-457.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
44.
Guilleminault  C, Davis  K, Huynh  NT.  Prospective randomized study of patients with insomnia and mild sleep disordered breathing.  Sleep. 2008;31(11):1527-1533.PubMedGoogle Scholar
45.
Jansson-Fröjmark  M, Linton  SJ, Flink  IK, Granberg  S, Danermark  B, Norell-Clarke  A.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia co-morbid with hearing impairment: a randomized controlled trial.  J Clin Psychol Med Settings. 2012;19(2):224-234.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
46.
Jungquist  CR, O’Brien  C, Matteson-Rusby  S,  et al.  The efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia in patients with chronic pain.  Sleep Med. 2010;11(3):302-309.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
47.
Kapella  MC, Herdegen  JJ, Perlis  ML,  et al.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia comorbid with COPD is feasible with preliminary evidence of positive sleep and fatigue effects.  Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2011;6:625-635.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
48.
Martínez  MP, Miró  E, Sánchez  AI,  et al.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia and sleep hygiene in fibromyalgia: a randomized controlled trial.  J Behav Med. 2014;37(4):683-697.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
49.
Matthews  EE, Berger  AM, Schmiege  SJ,  et al.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia outcomes in women after primary breast cancer treatment: a randomized, controlled trial.  Oncol Nurs Forum. 2014;41(3):241-253.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
50.
Miró  E, Lupiáñez  J, Martínez  MP,  et al.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia improves attentional function in fibromyalgia syndrome: a pilot, randomized controlled trial.  J Health Psychol. 2011;16(5):770-782.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
51.
Morgan  K, Gregory  P, Tomeny  M, David  BM, Gascoigne  C.  Self-help treatment for insomnia symptoms associated with chronic conditions in older adults: a randomized controlled trial.  J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60(10):1803-1810.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
52.
Ritterband  LM, Bailey  ET, Thorndike  FP, Lord  HR, Farrell-Carnahan  L, Baum  LD.  Initial evaluation of an Internet intervention to improve the sleep of cancer survivors with insomnia.  Psychooncology. 2012;21(7):695-705.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
53.
Rios Romenets  S, Creti  L, Fichten  C,  et al.  Doxepin and cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia in patients with Parkinson’s disease—a randomized study.  Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2013;19(7):670-675.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
54.
Rybarczyk  B, Lopez  M, Benson  R, Alsten  C, Stepanski  E.  Efficacy of two behavioral treatment programs for comorbid geriatric insomnia.  Psychol Aging. 2002;17(2):288-298.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
55.
Rybarczyk  B, Stepanski  E, Fogg  L, Lopez  M, Barry  P, Davis  A.  A placebo-controlled test of cognitive-behavioral therapy for comorbid insomnia in older adults.  J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73(6):1164-1174.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
56.
Savard  J, Simard  S, Ivers  H, Morin  CM.  Randomized study on the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia secondary to breast cancer, part I: sleep and psychological effects.  J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(25):6083-6096.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
57.
Tang  NKY, Goodchild  CE, Salkovskis  PM.  Hybrid cognitive-behaviour therapy for individuals with insomnia and chronic pain: a pilot randomised controlled trial.  Behav Res Ther. 2012;50(12):814-821.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
58.
Vitiello  MV, McCurry  SM, Shortreed  SM,  et al.  Cognitive-behavioral treatment for comorbid insomnia and osteoarthritis pain in primary care: the lifestyles randomized controlled trial.  J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61(6):947-956.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
59.
Messer  SB, Wampold  BE.  Let’s face facts: common factors are more potent than specific therapy ingredients.  Clin Psychol Sci Pract. 2006;9(1):21-25.Google ScholarCrossref
60.
Hofmann  SG, Smits  JA.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adult anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials.  J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(4):621-632.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
61.
Butler  AC, Chapman  JE, Forman  EM, Beck  AT.  The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: a review of meta-analyses.  Clin Psychol Rev. 2006;26(1):17-31.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
62.
Hofmann  SG, Wu  JQ, Boettcher  H.  Effect of cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders on quality of life: a meta-analysis.  J Consult Clin Psychol. 2014;82(3):375-391.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
63.
Carney  CE, Buysse  DJ, Ancoli-Israel  S,  et al.  The consensus sleep diary: standardizing prospective sleep self-monitoring.  Sleep. 2012;35(2):287-302.PubMedGoogle Scholar
64.
Shochat  T, Umphress  J, Israel  AG, Ancoli-Israel  S.  Insomnia in primary care patients.  Sleep. 1999;22(suppl 2):S359-S365.PubMedGoogle Scholar
65.
Mitchell  MD, Gehrman  P, Perlis  M, Umscheid  CA.  Comparative effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia: a systematic review.  BMC Fam Pract. 2012;13(1):40.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
66.
Buysse  DJ, Germain  A, Moul  DE,  et al.  Efficacy of brief behavioral treatment for chronic insomnia in older adults.  Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(10):887-895.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
Original Investigation
September 2015

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia Comorbid With Psychiatric and Medical Conditions: A Meta-analysis

Author Affiliations
  • 1Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
  • 2Sleep Disorders Service and Research Center, Department of Behavioral Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175(9):1461-1472. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.3006
Abstract

Importance  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) is the most prominent nonpharmacologic treatment for insomnia disorders. Although meta-analyses have examined primary insomnia, less is known about the comparative efficacy of CBT-I on comorbid insomnia.

Objective  To examine the efficacy of CBT-I for insomnia comorbid with psychiatric and/or medical conditions for (1) remission from insomnia; (2) self-reported sleep efficiency, sleep onset latency, wake after sleep onset, total sleep time, and subjective sleep quality; and (3) comorbid symptoms.

Data Sources  A systematic search was conducted on June 2, 2014, through PubMed, PsycINFO, the Cochrane Library, and manual searches. Search terms included (1) CBT-I or CBT or cognitive behavioral [and its variations] or behavioral therapy [and its variations] or behavioral sleep medicine or stimulus control or sleep restriction or relaxation therapy or relaxation training or progressive muscle relaxation or paradoxical intention; and (2) insomnia or sleep disturbance.

Study Selection  Studies were included if they were randomized clinical trials with at least one CBT-I arm and had an adult population meeting diagnostic criteria for insomnia as well as a concomitant condition. Inclusion in final analyses (37 studies) was based on consensus between 3 authors’ independent screenings.

Data Extraction and Synthesis  Data were independently extracted by 2 authors and pooled using a random-effects model. Study quality was independently evaluated by 2 authors using the Cochrane risk of bias assessment tool.

Main Outcomes and Measures  A priori main outcomes (ie, clinical sleep and comorbid outcomes) were derived from sleep diary and other self-report measures.

Results  At posttreatment evaluation, 36.0% of patients who received CBT-I were in remission from insomnia compared with 16.9% of those in control or comparison conditions (pooled odds ratio, 3.28; 95% CI, 2.30-4.68; P < .001). Pretreatment and posttreatment controlled effect sizes were medium to large for most sleep parameters (sleep efficiency: Hedges g = 0.91 [95% CI, 0.74 to 1.08]; sleep onset latency: Hedges g = 0.80 [95% CI, 0.60 to 1.00]; wake after sleep onset: Hedges g = 0.68; sleep quality: Hedges g = 0.84; all P < .001), except total sleep time. Comorbid outcomes yielded a small effect size (Hedges g = 0.39 [95% CI, 0.60-0.98]; P < .001); improvements were greater in psychiatric than in medical populations (Hedges g = 0.20 [95% CI, 0.09-0.30]; χ2 test for interaction = 12.30; P < .001).

Conclusions and Relevance  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia is efficacious for improving insomnia symptoms and sleep parameters for patients with comorbid insomnia. A small to medium positive effect was found across comorbid outcomes, with larger effects on psychiatric conditions compared with medical conditions. Large-scale studies with more rigorous designs to reduce detection and performance bias are needed to improve the quality of the evidence.

Introduction

Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) is a multicomponent treatment package that usually includes stimulus control, sleep restriction, and cognitive therapy (eTable 1 in the Supplement) and has emerged as the most prominent nonpharmacologic treatment for chronic insomnia.1,2 Previous meta-analyses have found that CBT-I improves sleep parameters and sleep quality at post treatment3-8 and follow-up6 for adults and older adults.5 Most of these studies selected individuals with primary insomnia, excluding patients with comorbid psychiatric and medical conditions. However, patients with insomnia who present to internists and primary care physicians are likely to report comorbid conditions associated with the sleep disturbance. Furthermore, insomnia was previously conceptualized as a symptom arising from the comorbid disorder and treatment was targeted at the underlying disorder. However, accumulating evidence9,10 indicates that insomnia can have a distinct and independent trajectory from the comorbid disorder, thus indicating a need for separate treatment from the comorbid condition.

As a result of this paradigm shift, the literature on CBT-I for comorbid insomnia has flourished over the past decade. Randomized clinical trials have examined the efficacy of CBT-I on a range of comorbidities including cancer, chronic pain, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Although reviews11,12 have been conducted on CBT-I and comorbid psychiatric conditions, to our knowledge no meta-analysis has examined the effect of CBT-I on both psychiatric and medical conditions. Given the patient profile encountered in primary care and internal medicine, data on remission and treatment effects of CBT-I for comorbid insomnia could aid in treatment planning and referrals.

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to answer 2 research questions regarding the efficacy of CBT-I for comorbid insomnia populations: What is the efficacy of CBT-I on sleep outcomes and insomnia symptoms for comorbid insomnia? What is the efficacy of CBT-I on outcomes related to the comorbid condition? Given the heterogeneity in comorbid conditions and study design, exploratory analyses were conducted to examine potential moderators of treatment effects.

Methods
Initial Search

A systematic search was conducted June 2, 2014, in PubMed, PsycINFO, and the Cochrane Library from the first available date. The following sets of search terms were used: (1) CBT-I or CBT or cognitive behavioral [and its variations] or behavioral therapy [and its variations] or behavioral sleep medicine or stimulus control or sleep restriction or relaxation therapy or relaxation training or progressive muscle relaxation or paradoxical intention; and (2) insomnia or sleep disturbance. In addition, manual searches were conducted through reference lists of reviews and meta-analyses identified through the above systematic database searches.

Trial Selection

From the pool of studies identified by the database searches, published studies were selected if they met the inclusion criteria. First, the trial had CBT-I as a treatment arm, defined as a multicomponent intervention that includes at least one behavioral component plus a cognitive or relaxation therapy (eTable 1 in the Supplement), which is consistent with the standard recommendations for the treatment of insomnia disorders.2 Second, the sample consisted of adults 18 years or older who met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Third Edition), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition), or International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision criteria for an insomnia disorder or established quantitative criteria for insomnia, and another well-characterized psychiatric disorder (ie, primary symptoms are mental) or medical condition (ie, primary symptoms are physical). Third, the trial had a randomized controlled design including at least one control or comparison group that did not receive CBT-I. Finally, the trial reported sufficient data for performing effect size (ES) calculations for primary variables of interest. Studies were excluded if the data reported in the trial represented a secondary analysis or were reported in another included trial, if the data were unpublished, or if an English version of the article was not available.

The selection process was conducted by 3 of us (J.Q.W., E.R.A., and R.D.S.), during which each of the studies identified as relevant through the initial search was independently evaluated for inclusion and exclusion criteria by at least 2 of 3 authors. Initial interrater agreement was 94%. All disagreements regarding a trial’s eligibility were resolved through case-by-case discussion among raters.

Outcome Variables and Measures
Remission From Insomnia

Remission from insomnia was derived from 2 standard measures that are recommended as global measures of insomnia.13 The Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) is a brief 7-item scale with a total score of less than 8 serving as a cut-off value for insomnia remission.14 The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) is a 10-item scale with a total score of 5 or less serving as a cut-off for “good sleepers.”15

Sleep Outcome Measures

Sleep parameters included sleep diary measures of sleep efficiency (SE), total sleep time (TST), sleep onset latency (SOL), and wake after sleep onset (WASO), as well as self-report measures of subjective sleep quality. These variables were chosen because they are clinically meaningful in the assessment of insomnia severity13 and were the most commonly reported outcomes among included studies.

Comorbid Outcome Measures

Main outcomes identified in each study for the specified comorbid disorder were extracted as the comorbid outcome measure for the present meta-analysis. In cases in which disorder-specific outcomes (eg, kidney functioning) were not measured or reported, general outcomes of fatigue, depression, anxiety, and quality of life were substituted as comorbid outcomes.

Planned Analyses

A priori analyses were designed to produce (1) posttreatment remission rates and odds ratios (ORs); (2) baseline to posttreatment controlled treatment ESs for sleep and comorbid outcomes; (3) baseline to follow-up controlled treatment ESs for sleep outcomes and comorbid outcomes; and (4) moderating effects of type of comorbidity, length of treatment, publication year, sample size, and objective vs subjective measurements of sleep parameters on ESs.

Data Extraction

Two of us (J.Q.W., R.D.S.) identified target outcomes from each included trial and extracted numeric data. In the case of multiple control/comparison conditions, the most active nonpharmacologic condition was chosen. If an appropriate nonpharmacologic condition did not exist, the pharmacologic condition was chosen. Twenty-five percent of extracted data were independently entered by those 2 of us to spot-check for accuracy. If data necessary for effect size or remission rate calculations were not reported in the published article, corresponding authors were contacted with data requests, and the trial was excluded from analyses if the authors were unable to provide necessary data or did not respond after 3 contact attempts.

Quantitative Data Synthesis

A random-effects model was used to account for variance in design and outcome variables.16,17 To compare rates of remission from insomnia between groups, we calculated pooled ORs. To evaluate the effects of CBT-I on sleep and comorbid symptoms, we calculated the pooled Hedges g value and its 95% CI. Consistent with convention, a conservative estimate of r = 0.70 was used as the pre-post correlation in the calculation if it was not reported.18 Consistent with convention, an effect size of 0.2 was interpreted as small, 0.5 as medium, and 0.8 as large.19 In trials with multiple measures of outcome variables (eg, PSQI and ISI), ES estimates were averaged across all measures. To explore the potential role of type of comorbidity and objective vs subjective measures of sleep parameters as moderators of treatment effects, we conducted separate subgroup analyses. Furthermore, we entered publication year, sample size, and treatment length into a metaregression model to evaluate their potential relative contributions to between-study variance.

Publication Bias and Study Quality

Several strategies were used to address potential publication bias: (1) conducting fail-safe N analyses18,20 to assess the robustness of ESs; (2) inspecting funnel plots to assess overrepresentation of positive and negative studies; and (3) using the trim-and-fill method to adjust ESs accordingly.21 Study quality was assessed independently by 2 of us (J.Q.W. and J.C.O.) using the Cochrane Collaboration’s risk of bias assessment tool.22 In each domain, studies were given a rating of low risk, high risk, or unclear risk. Consensus ratings were reached through discussion between these 2 of us. All analyses were performed using the software program Comprehensive Meta-Analysis, version 2.23

Results
Trial Flow

The initial database and manual search identified 1683 nonunique hits that yielded 158 potential studies for further examination (Figure 1). Of these, 68 qualified for preliminary inclusion, but 21 were excluded because they were duplicates or reported secondary analyses of data already reported in another included trial. A further 10 studies could not be included because their full-text articles could not be obtained or the published article did not report adequate data needed for meta-analysis, and authors were unable to provide them. One other study was excluded because it did not report sleep diary or comorbid outcomes. Thus, the present meta-analysis extracted data from 36 published studies. Because one study24 included multiple intervention and control conditions that allowed for analyses of 2 independent CBT-I interventions, each with an appropriate control condition, the final analyses reflect ESs from 37 randomized clinical trials.

Characteristics of analyzed trials are presented in the Table. They were published between 1996 and 2014. The 37 trials reported data from a total of 2189 participants. There was a range of comorbid disorders falling into 3 broad categories: psychiatric (n = 10)25-34 medical (n = 26),24,35-58 and mixed (n = 1).9 The mean total sample size per trial was 59.16. Most trials included both male and female participants, with the exception of 8 trials that included only women with breast cancer or fibromyalgia.37,40-42,48-50,56 Trials used a range of control or comparison groups, including waiting list control or delayed treatment or symptom monitoring (10), treatment as usual (7), sleep hygiene education (7), and other active behavioral comparison conditions (13), such as behavioral placebo treatment, pharmacotherapy, mindfulness-based stress reduction, surgery, and relaxation training. Twenty-six trials24-37,42,45-48,50,51,53-58 used the ISI and/or PSQI, and of these, only 4 failed to provide data on remission.34,36,50,54 The most common assessment methods for the quantitative sleep parameters were sleep diaries/logs and, for subjective sleep quality, the PSQI and ISI (Table). Ten trials reported SE, SOL and WASO as measured by actigraphy or polysomnography, which did not produce sufficient objective sleep data for quantitative synthesis.

Study Quality

Overall, the quality of studies was moderate to high, and we judged them to have generally low risk of bias in most domains (eTable 2 in the Supplement). High risk in performance bias (42.1%) and detection bias (57.9%) were observed. The potential for bias in these domains was the result of having a waiting list or treatment as usual control condition and unblinded participants, therapists, and assessors. Overall, only 3 studies9,42,53 received a high-risk rating in more than 2 domains.

Quantitative Data Synthesis
Insomnia Remission

Twenty-two trials24-33,35,37,45,47,51-53,55-58 reported or provided ISI or PSQI at post treatment, allowing calculation of remission rates based on a total of 482 control patients and 539 patients who underwent CBT-I (Figure 2). Of patients receiving CBT-I, 36.0% reached remission status, compared with 16.9% of those in control/comparison conditions. Meta-analysis yielded a pooled OR of 3.28 (95% CI, 2.30-4.68; P < .001). The fail-safe N was a robust 280. The funnel plot of log OR and standard error was asymmetrical toward the right, indicating potential publication bias. The newly imputed OR was 2.61.

Sleep Efficiency

Twenty-four trials9,24-29,31,32,35,36,38-40,43,46,47,49,52,54-57 reported SE using sleep diaries (Figure 3). The random effects meta-analysis yielded a pooled Hedges g = 0.91 (95% CI, 0.74 to 1.08; z= 10.32; P < .001). With an α level of .01, the fail-safe N for the SE analysis was 1028 (z = 12.98), indicating that 1028 trials with ESs of zero would be needed to nullify these results. The above pooled ES is thus considered statistically robust. The funnel plot revealed potential publication bias; the trim-and-fill analysis21 determined that 1 trial would have to fall to the right of the mean to render the plot symmetrical, and the newly imputed ES after adjusting for asymmetry was Hedges g = 0.93 (95% CI, 0.76-1.10).

Sleep Onset Latency

Twenty trials reported SOL,9,25-27,29-32,35,36,39-41,43,44,46,47,49,52,54-57 yielding a pooled Hedges g = 0.80 (95% CI, 0.60 to 1.00; z= 7.79, P < .001). The fail-safe N was a statistically robust 614 (z = 11.03). Trim and fill analysis21 indicated no publication bias.

Wake After Sleep Onset

Eighteen trials9,25-27,29,31,32,35,39,40,42-44,46,47,52,54,55,57 reported WASO, yielding a pooled Hedges g = 0.68 (95% CI, 0.60-0.98; z= 8.08; P < .001), with a statistically robust fail-safe N of 333 (z = 11.22). The funnel plot was symmetrical, indicating no publication bias.

Total Sleep Time

Twenty-five trials9,24-32,35,36,38-41,43-47,49,52,54-57 reported TST, with a pooled Hedges g = 0.19 (95% CI, 0.06-0.31; z= 2.92; P = .003). However, the fail-safe N of 55 (z = 3.50) was less than 5k +10, where k is the number of observed trials; the above pooled ES is not considered statistically robust. Therefore, TST was excluded from further moderator analyses.

Sleep Quality

Thirty-four trials9,24-37,39,40,42,43,45-58 reported on subjective sleep quality (eFigure in the Supplement), yielding a pooled Hedges g = 0.84 (95% CI, 0.69-1.00; z= 10.42; P < .001), with a statistically robust fail-safe N of 2206 (z = 15.91). Trim and fill analysis21 indicated no publication bias.

Comorbid Condition Outcomes

Thirty-one trials9,24-26,28-39,42-52,55,57,58 reported clinical outcomes for the target comorbid disorder using psychometrically validated self-report instruments and standard medical outcome measures (Figure 4), yielding a pooled Hedges g = 0.39 (95% CI, 0.25-0.53; z= 5.51; P < .001). The fail-safe N for the sleep quality analysis was a statistically robust 409 (z = 7.38). Trim and fill analysis21 determined that 13 trials would have to fall to the left of the mean to render the plot symmetrical, indicating potential publication bias; the newly imputed ES after adjusting for asymmetry was Hedges g = 0.16 (95% CI, 0.01-0.32).

Follow-up Outcomes

Thirteen trials9,26,27,33-35,39,41,43,45,48,49,54 reported follow-up outcomes for both CBT-I and control/comparison groups, with follow-up time points ranging from 3 to 12 months post intervention. Of these, only 8 trials9,26,27,35,39,43,49,54 reported SE outcomes at follow-up to yield a medium ES (Hedges g = 0.61; 95% CI, 0.39-0.82; z= 5.61; P < .001, fail-safe N = 58; z = 7.42). Adjusted Hedges g was 0.52 (95% CI, 0.33-0.72) with trim-and-fill analysis.21 Twelve trials9,26,27,33-35,39,43,45,48,49,54 reported sleep quality at follow-up outcomes to yield a medium to large ES (Hedges g = 0.70; 95% CI, 0.25-0.52; z= 5.61; P < .001, fail-safe N = 161; z = 7.42). Trim-and-fill analysis21 indicated an adjusted Hedges g = 0.55, 95% CI [0.30 to 0.81]. Follow-up outcomes were reported in 10 trials for TST,9,26,27,35,39,41,43,45,49,54 8 for SOL,9,26,27,34,35,39,43,54 and 7 for WASO.9,27,35,39,42,43,54 There was not enough power to produce statistically robust pooled ESs (fail-safe N values <36) for these outcomes.

Moderator Analyses
Psychiatric vs Medical Comorbidity

Nine studies of insomnia comorbid with psychiatric disorders25,26,28-34 (Hedges g = 0.76; 95% CI, 0.46-1.05) yielded a larger pooled ES on comorbid outcomes than did 21 studies of insomnia comorbid with medical conditions24,35-39,42-52,55,57,58 (Hedges g = 0.20; 95% CI, 0.09-0.30; χ2 test for interaction = 12.30; P < .001), suggesting that psychiatric symptoms comorbid with insomnia may be more responsive to CBT-I than are medical symptoms. However, there were no significant differences between the 2 types of comorbid populations in terms of sleep outcomes (χ2 test for interactions <1.32; all P > .31). In other words, the positive response to CBT-I on insomnia symptoms does not appear to be moderated by the type of comorbid condition.

Objective vs Subjective Measure of Sleep Parameters

Ten trials27,28,31,39-41,43,44,47,54 reported actigraphy and/or polysomnography measures of SE, SOL, and/or WASO. Owing to a lack of power, statistically robust pooled ESs could not be produced (ie, fail-safe N values ≤29). Preliminary findings indicated statistically nonsignificant ESs in the small to medium range for SE (n = 10; Hedges g = 0.12; 95% CI, −0.30 to 0.27; P = .12), SOL (n = 7; Hedges g = 0.46, 95% CI, 0.18 to 0.74; P = .01), and WASO (n = 8; Hedges g = 0.53; 95% CI, 0.07 to 1.00; P = .02).

Publication Year, Sample Size, and Treatment Length

With an α level of .01, omnibus tests did not reach statistical significance (Q < 8.953; P > .03); together, publication year, sample size, and treatment length contributed 9% or less of the between-study variance to sleep and comorbid outcomes. However, holding other covariates constant, increase in the number of sessions predicted slightly larger improvement in sleep quality (β = 0.13; z = 2.62; P < .01). Publication year and sample size did not independently predict sleep/comorbid parameter ESs (|β|s <.02, all P > .29).

Discussion

The present meta-analysis examined the efficacy of CBT-I across 37 randomized clinical trials that included 2189 patients with insomnia comorbid with psychiatric and medical conditions. Overall, our findings indicate that CBT-I has positive effects on reducing insomnia symptoms and sleep disturbances in comorbid insomnia. At posttreatment evaluation, 35.6% of the patients who received CBT-I were in remission from insomnia, compared with 17.4% of those in control or comparison conditions. Pre-post controlled ESs were medium to large for most sleep parameters, including improvements in SE and subjective sleep quality and reductions in SOL and WASO, with the range from Hedges g being 0.67 to 0.88. These ESs are similar to those found in meta-analyses of primary insomnia trials6-8 and collectively support the efficacy of CBT-I in reducing insomnia symptoms and improving sleep parameters across primary and comorbid insomnia disorders. In addition, the treatment effects remained in the medium range for SE and sleep quality at follow-up, indicating that the benefits of CBT-I are generally maintained 3 to 12 months after completing treatment. Consistent with one previous review,6 CBT-I did not yield significant effects on TST at posttreatment evaluation.

Cognitive and behavioral therapy for insomnia also had positive effects on comorbid outcomes, including condition-specific clinical indices and general measures of mood and functioning, yielding a small to medium pooled ES of Hedges g = 0.39. The extent of improvement in comorbid symptoms was moderated by the type of comorbidity such that patients with psychiatric disorders demonstrated significantly larger changes (Hedges g = 0.76) compared with those with medical conditions (Hedges g = 0.20). There were no significant differences between the 2 populations in terms of improvements on sleep indices. These findings indicate that CBT-I has positive effects on sleep across comorbid conditions, but it has stronger effects on comorbid symptoms in psychiatric conditions compared with comorbid symptoms in medical conditions, leading to 2 possible hypotheses. First, sleep disturbance may be more strongly associated with cognitive-emotional symptoms than with physical symptoms. Therefore, reducing sleep disturbance would have a stronger effect on psychiatric illness, especially given the inclusion of sleep disturbance among the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and mood disorders, 2 common psychiatric comorbidities. Second, greater improvements in psychiatric symptoms may be due to common factors, which have been hypothesized to account for a proportion of the variance across different forms of psychotherapy.59 For example, it is possible that patients with comorbid psychiatric symptoms benefit globally from elements of cognitive therapy contained in CBT-I, which have been shown to be effective for anxiety,60 depression,61 and quality of life in general.62

The trials reviewed in the present meta-analysis were of generally good quality and had low risk of bias. Approximately 90% of the trials were found to have a high risk for bias in 2 domains or fewer. However, we found large discrepancies on detection and performance bias. Specifically, few trials described efforts to use blinded assessors to collect self-report data or to score objective measures (polysomnography or actigraphy). Although self-reported sleep logs and global measures of insomnia severity are considered standard assessments for insomnia,13,63 methods for collecting and scoring these data to minimize potential bias have not been specified. Mobilizing resources to reduce detection and performance bias in future randomized clinical trials on insomnia disorders could improve the methodologic rigor of this literature. In addition, the mean sample size of the studies was only 59 participants, indicating that the trials reviewed were mostly small-scale pilot studies. Overall, the literature on comorbid insomnia is still maturing and more rigorous, large-scale studies are needed to yield more stable and consistent effect sizes.

Several limitations should be noted with regards to our findings. First, there were only 10 trials that reported objective measures of sleep and rest-activity at both pretreatment and posttreatment (Table). As a result, independent ESs for each method could not be meaningfully produced; thus, the effects of CBT-I on objective measures of sleep remain inconclusive. Second, there were insufficient studies reporting TST at follow-up to examine the long-term effect of CBT-I on TST. Third, the full range of psychiatric and medical conditions is not represented in these studies, and the outcome measures on the comorbid condition were heterogeneous. In some studies, the outcome was specific to the comorbid condition, such as the percentage of abstinent days in the context of substance dependence25; in other studies, the outcome was a sequela of the comorbid condition or treatment of the comorbid condition, such as fatigue in the context of breast cancer.37,49,52 As a result, we were unable to specify the direction of the association between insomnia and the comorbid condition.

Conclusions

Our findings indicate that CBT-I can improve insomnia symptoms and sleep parameters when insomnia is comorbid with medical and psychiatric conditions. Furthermore, CBT-I can affect symptoms associated with the comorbid condition, with stronger effects observed in psychiatric conditions compared with medical conditions. These findings provide empirical support for the recommendation of using CBT-I as the treatment of choice for comorbid insomnia disorders.1,2 Given that insomnia disorders are highly prevalent in primary care settings,64,65 health care professionals in these settings should regularly assess for sleep disturbances in the context of comorbid conditions and efforts should be directed at adapting CBT-I to the time constraints in this setting. For example, a brief behavioral therapy for insomnia delivered by a trained nurse has demonstrated efficacy in primary care66 and can serve as a model for implementing CBT-I in this setting.

Back to top
Article Information

Accepted for Publication: April 6, 2015.

Corresponding Author: Jason C. Ong, PhD, Sleep Disorders Service and Research Center, Department of Behavioral Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, 1653 W Congress Pkwy, Chicago, IL 60612 (jason_ong@rush.edu).

Published Online: July 6, 2015. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.3006.

Author Contributions: Ms Wu and Dr Ong had full access to all the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Study concept and design: Wu.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Wu, Ong.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Wu.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Wu, Appleman, Salazar, Ong.

Study supervision: Ong.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Ong serves as a consultant to Sleepio, Inc. This activity is not related to the present study. No other conflicts are reported.

References
1.
Morgenthaler  T, Kramer  M, Alessi  C,  et al; American Academy of Sleep Medicine.  Practice parameters for the psychological and behavioral treatment of insomnia: an update: an American Academy Of Sleep Medicine report.  Sleep. 2006;29(11):1415-1419.PubMedGoogle Scholar
2.
Schutte-Rodin  S, Broch  L, Buysse  D, Dorsey  C, Sateia  M.  Clinical guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic insomnia in adults.  J Clin Sleep Med. 2008;4(5):487-504.PubMedGoogle Scholar
3.
Morin  CM, Culbert  JP, Schwartz  SM.  Nonpharmacological interventions for insomnia: a meta-analysis of treatment efficacy.  Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151(8):1172-1180.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
4.
Murtagh  DRR, Greenwood  KM.  Identifying effective psychological treatments for insomnia: a meta-analysis.  J Consult Clin Psychol. 1995;63(1):79-89.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
5.
Irwin  MR, Cole  JC, Nicassio  PM.  Comparative meta-analysis of behavioral interventions for insomnia and their efficacy in middle-aged adults and in older adults 55+ years of age.  Health Psychol. 2006;25(1):3-14.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
6.
Okajima  I, Komada  Y, Inoue  Y.  A meta-analysis on the treatment effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for primary insomnia.  Sleep Biol Rhythms. 2011;9(1):24-34.Google ScholarCrossref
7.
Koffel  EA, Koffel  JB, Gehrman  PR.  A meta-analysis of group cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia.  Sleep Med Rev. 2015;19(2):6-16.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
8.
Smith  MT, Perlis  ML, Park  A,  et al.  Comparative meta-analysis of pharmacotherapy and behavior therapy for persistent insomnia.  Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(1):5-11.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
9.
Lichstein  KL, Wilson  NM, Johnson  CT.  Psychological treatment of secondary insomnia.  Psychol Aging. 2000;15(2):232-240.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
10.
Sánchez-Ortuño  MM, Edinger  JD.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for the management of insomnia comorbid with mental disorders.  Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2012;14(5):519-528.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
11.
Taylor  DJ, Pruiksma  KE.  Cognitive and behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) in psychiatric populations: a systematic review.  Int Rev Psychiatry. 2014;26(2):205-213.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
12.
Smith  MT, Huang  MI, Manber  R.  Cognitive behavior therapy for chronic insomnia occurring within the context of medical and psychiatric disorders.  Clin Psychol Rev. 2005;25(5):559-592.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
13.
Buysse  DJ, Ancoli-Israel  S, Edinger  JD, Lichstein  KL, Morin  CM.  Recommendations for a standard research assessment of insomnia.  Sleep. 2006;29(9):1155-1173.PubMedGoogle Scholar
14.
Morin  CM, Belleville  G, Bélanger  L, Ivers  H.  The Insomnia Severity Index: psychometric indicators to detect insomnia cases and evaluate treatment response.  Sleep. 2011;34(5):601-608.PubMedGoogle Scholar
15.
Buysse  DJ, Reynolds  CF  III, Monk  TH, Berman  SR, Kupfer  DJ.  The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research.  Psychiatry Res. 1989;28(2):193-213.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
16.
Hedges  LV.  Statistical Methodology in Meta-analysis. Princeton, NJ: ERIC Clearinghouse; 1982.
17.
Moses  LE, Mosteller  F, Buehler  JH.  Comparing results of large clinical trials to those of meta-analyses.  Stat Med. 2002;21(6):793-800.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
18.
Rosenthal  R.  Meta-analytic Procedures for Social Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications; 1991.
19.
Cohen  J.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences.2nd ed. London, England: Routledge Academic; 2013.
20.
Rosenthal  R, Rubin  DB.  [Selection models and the file drawer problem]: comment: assumptions and procedures in the file drawer problem.  Stat Sci. 1988;3(1):120-125.Google ScholarCrossref
21.
Duval  S, Tweedie  R.  Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot–based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis.  Biometrics. 2000;56(2):455-463.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
22.
Higgins  JPT, Altman  DG, Gøtzsche  PC,  et al; Cochrane Bias Methods Group; Cochrane Statistical Methods Group.  The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials.  BMJ. 2011;343:d5928. doi:10.1136/bmj.d5928.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
23.
Borenstein  M, Hedges  L, Higgins  J, Rothstein  H.  Comprehensive Meta-Analysis, Version 2. Englewood, NJ: Biostat; 2005:104.
24.
Pigeon  WR, Moynihan  J, Matteson-Rusby  S,  et al.  Comparative effectiveness of CBT interventions for co-morbid chronic pain & insomnia: a pilot study.  Behav Res Ther. 2012;50(11):685-689.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
25.
Arnedt  JT, Conroy  DA, Armitage  R, Brower  KJ.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia in alcohol dependent patients: a randomized controlled pilot trial.  Behav Res Ther. 2011;49(4):227-233.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
26.
Currie  SR, Clark  S, Hodgins  DC, El-Guebaly  N.  Randomized controlled trial of brief cognitive-behavioural interventions for insomnia in recovering alcoholics.  Addiction. 2004;99(9):1121-1132.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
27.
Edinger  JD, Olsen  MK, Stechuchak  KM,  et al.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for patients with primary insomnia or insomnia associated predominantly with mixed psychiatric disorders: a randomized clinical trial.  Sleep. 2009;32(4):499-510.PubMedGoogle Scholar
28.
Manber  R, Edinger  JD, Gress  JL, San Pedro-Salcedo  MG, Kuo  TF, Kalista  T.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia enhances depression outcome in patients with comorbid major depressive disorder and insomnia.  Sleep. 2008;31(4):489-495.PubMedGoogle Scholar
29.
Margolies  SO, Rybarczyk  B, Vrana  SR, Leszczyszyn  DJ, Lynch  J.  Efficacy of a cognitive-behavioral treatment for insomnia and nightmares in Afghanistan and Iraq veterans with PTSD.  J Clin Psychol. 2013;69(10):1026-1042.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
30.
Morgan  K, Dixon  S, Mathers  N, Thompson  J, Tomeny  M.  Psychological treatment for insomnia in the regulation of long-term hypnotic drug use.  Health Technol Assess. 2004;8(8):iii-iv, 1-68.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
31.
Talbot  LS, Maguen  S, Metzler  TJ,  et al.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia in posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial.  Sleep. 2014;37(2):327-341.PubMedGoogle Scholar
32.
Ulmer  CS, Edinger  JD, Calhoun  PS.  A multi-component cognitive-behavioral intervention for sleep disturbance in veterans with PTSD: a pilot study.  J Clin Sleep Med. 2011;7(1):57-68.PubMedGoogle Scholar
33.
Wagley  JN, Rybarczyk  B, Nay  WT, Danish  S, Lund  HG.  Effectiveness of abbreviated CBT for insomnia in psychiatric outpatients: sleep and depression outcomes.  J Clin Psychol. 2013;69(10):1043-1055.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
34.
Watanabe  N, Furukawa  TA, Shimodera  S,  et al.  Brief behavioral therapy for refractory insomnia in residual depression: an assessor-blind, randomized controlled trial.  J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72(12):1651-1658.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
35.
Currie  SR, Wilson  KG, Pontefract  AJ, deLaplante  L.  Cognitive-behavioral treatment of insomnia secondary to chronic pain.  J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68(3):407-416.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
36.
Chen  H-Y, Cheng  I-C, Pan  Y-J,  et al.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for sleep disturbance decreases inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients.  Kidney Int. 2011;80(4):415-422.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
37.
Dirksen  SR, Epstein  DR.  Efficacy of an insomnia intervention on fatigue, mood and quality of life in breast cancer survivors.  J Adv Nurs. 2008;61(6):664-675.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
38.
Edinger  JD, Fins  AI, Sullivan  RJ, Marsh  GR, Dailey  DS, Young  M.  Comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and clonazepam for treating periodic limb movement disorder.  Sleep. 1996;19(5):442-444.PubMedGoogle Scholar
39.
Edinger  JD, Wohlgemuth  WK, Krystal  AD, Rice  JR.  Behavioral insomnia therapy for fibromyalgia patients: a randomized clinical trial.  Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(21):2527-2535.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
40.
Epstein  DR, Dirksen  SR.  Randomized trial of a cognitive-behavioral intervention for insomnia in breast cancer survivors.  Oncol Nurs Forum. 2007;34(5):E51-E59.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
41.
Espie  CA, Fleming  L, Cassidy  J,  et al.  Randomized controlled clinical effectiveness trial of cognitive behavior therapy compared with treatment as usual for persistent insomnia in patients with cancer.  J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(28):4651-4658.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
42.
Fiorentino  L, McQuaid  JR, Liu  L,  et al.  Individual cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia in breast cancer survivors: a randomized controlled crossover pilot study.  Nat Sci Sleep. 2009;2010:1-8.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
43.
Garland  SN, Carlson  LE, Stephens  AJ, Antle  MC, Samuels  C, Campbell  TS.  Mindfulness-based stress reduction compared with cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of insomnia comorbid with cancer: a randomized, partially blinded, noninferiority trial.  J Clin Oncol. 2014;32(5):449-457.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
44.
Guilleminault  C, Davis  K, Huynh  NT.  Prospective randomized study of patients with insomnia and mild sleep disordered breathing.  Sleep. 2008;31(11):1527-1533.PubMedGoogle Scholar
45.
Jansson-Fröjmark  M, Linton  SJ, Flink  IK, Granberg  S, Danermark  B, Norell-Clarke  A.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia co-morbid with hearing impairment: a randomized controlled trial.  J Clin Psychol Med Settings. 2012;19(2):224-234.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
46.
Jungquist  CR, O’Brien  C, Matteson-Rusby  S,  et al.  The efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia in patients with chronic pain.  Sleep Med. 2010;11(3):302-309.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
47.
Kapella  MC, Herdegen  JJ, Perlis  ML,  et al.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia comorbid with COPD is feasible with preliminary evidence of positive sleep and fatigue effects.  Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2011;6:625-635.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
48.
Martínez  MP, Miró  E, Sánchez  AI,  et al.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia and sleep hygiene in fibromyalgia: a randomized controlled trial.  J Behav Med. 2014;37(4):683-697.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
49.
Matthews  EE, Berger  AM, Schmiege  SJ,  et al.  Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia outcomes in women after primary breast cancer treatment: a randomized, controlled trial.  Oncol Nurs Forum. 2014;41(3):241-253.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
50.
Miró  E, Lupiáñez  J, Martínez  MP,  et al.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia improves attentional function in fibromyalgia syndrome: a pilot, randomized controlled trial.  J Health Psychol. 2011;16(5):770-782.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
51.
Morgan  K, Gregory  P, Tomeny  M, David  BM, Gascoigne  C.  Self-help treatment for insomnia symptoms associated with chronic conditions in older adults: a randomized controlled trial.  J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60(10):1803-1810.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
52.
Ritterband  LM, Bailey  ET, Thorndike  FP, Lord  HR, Farrell-Carnahan  L, Baum  LD.  Initial evaluation of an Internet intervention to improve the sleep of cancer survivors with insomnia.  Psychooncology. 2012;21(7):695-705.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
53.
Rios Romenets  S, Creti  L, Fichten  C,  et al.  Doxepin and cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia in patients with Parkinson’s disease—a randomized study.  Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2013;19(7):670-675.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
54.
Rybarczyk  B, Lopez  M, Benson  R, Alsten  C, Stepanski  E.  Efficacy of two behavioral treatment programs for comorbid geriatric insomnia.  Psychol Aging. 2002;17(2):288-298.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
55.
Rybarczyk  B, Stepanski  E, Fogg  L, Lopez  M, Barry  P, Davis  A.  A placebo-controlled test of cognitive-behavioral therapy for comorbid insomnia in older adults.  J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73(6):1164-1174.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
56.
Savard  J, Simard  S, Ivers  H, Morin  CM.  Randomized study on the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia secondary to breast cancer, part I: sleep and psychological effects.  J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(25):6083-6096.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
57.
Tang  NKY, Goodchild  CE, Salkovskis  PM.  Hybrid cognitive-behaviour therapy for individuals with insomnia and chronic pain: a pilot randomised controlled trial.  Behav Res Ther. 2012;50(12):814-821.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
58.
Vitiello  MV, McCurry  SM, Shortreed  SM,  et al.  Cognitive-behavioral treatment for comorbid insomnia and osteoarthritis pain in primary care: the lifestyles randomized controlled trial.  J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61(6):947-956.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
59.
Messer  SB, Wampold  BE.  Let’s face facts: common factors are more potent than specific therapy ingredients.  Clin Psychol Sci Pract. 2006;9(1):21-25.Google ScholarCrossref
60.
Hofmann  SG, Smits  JA.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adult anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials.  J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(4):621-632.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
61.
Butler  AC, Chapman  JE, Forman  EM, Beck  AT.  The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: a review of meta-analyses.  Clin Psychol Rev. 2006;26(1):17-31.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
62.
Hofmann  SG, Wu  JQ, Boettcher  H.  Effect of cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders on quality of life: a meta-analysis.  J Consult Clin Psychol. 2014;82(3):375-391.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
63.
Carney  CE, Buysse  DJ, Ancoli-Israel  S,  et al.  The consensus sleep diary: standardizing prospective sleep self-monitoring.  Sleep. 2012;35(2):287-302.PubMedGoogle Scholar
64.
Shochat  T, Umphress  J, Israel  AG, Ancoli-Israel  S.  Insomnia in primary care patients.  Sleep. 1999;22(suppl 2):S359-S365.PubMedGoogle Scholar
65.
Mitchell  MD, Gehrman  P, Perlis  M, Umscheid  CA.  Comparative effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia: a systematic review.  BMC Fam Pract. 2012;13(1):40.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
66.
Buysse  DJ, Germain  A, Moul  DE,  et al.  Efficacy of brief behavioral treatment for chronic insomnia in older adults.  Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(10):887-895.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref
×